Careers

About the Organization AWS is on a mission to transform how businesses operate by delivering intelligent, cloud-powered applications. Our Applied AI Solutions organization accelerates customer success through intuitive, differentiated technology that solves enduring business challenges — blending vision with real-world expertise to build turnkey solutions that are easy to adopt and built to scale. Within this organization, we are building the next generation of secure, intelligent workspaces — environments purpose-built for human-AI collaboration at enterprise scale. The Role We are looking for a Senior Applied Scientist to build the predictive intelligence powering capacity management for our workspace platform — developing machine learning systems that forecast demand, optimize resource allocation, and enable cost-efficient scaling at massive scale. This role requires someone who can translate complex business requirements into production ML systems, designing algorithms that balance customer experience with operational efficiency across a large and diverse fleet of capacity pools. What You'll Do • Architect and implement ML foundations for capacity management, building models that continuously learn and optimize across multiple dimensions including geography, platform, and instance type. • Develop demand forecasting systems that anticipate usage patterns hours to weeks in advance, enabling proactive capacity decisions at scale. • Build anomaly detection systems that identify capacity risks before they impact customers, improving service reliability and resilience. • Design optimization algorithms that make high-frequency, automated decisions balancing two critical forces: ensuring a flawless customer experience where every operation succeeds, while maximizing cost efficiency through intelligent resource utilization and placement strategies. • Apply advanced ML techniques including time-series forecasting, reinforcement learning, and causal inference to measure the true impact of capacity decisions on customer experience and cost. • Engineer features from large-scale datasets spanning usage signals, session patterns, and infrastructure telemetry — capturing complex interactions across diverse workload types. • Partner closely with product and engineering teams to translate product vision into scientific solutions, deploying models that process millions of predictions daily with sub-second latency requirements. What Success Looks Like • ML systems that enable the service to remain profitable while capacity-related customer impacts become increasingly rare. • Measurable business impact through reduced capacity waste, improved cost efficiency, and elimination of customer-impacting capacity events. • Scientific innovation that unlocks significant cost savings through predictive resource commitment strategies and intelligent automated decision-making. • Models that maintain the safety margins needed to absorb demand volatility without customer impact. • An ML foundation that enables distributed, autonomous decision-making while maintaining consistent quality at scale. What We're Looking For • Deep expertise in machine learning, with hands-on experience building and deploying production ML systems. • Strong background in time-series forecasting and handling demand volatility across diverse workload patterns. • Experience with reinforcement learning for dynamic resource allocation and causal inference for impact measurement. • Ability to work with large-scale datasets and engineer features that capture complex, multi-dimensional interactions. • Strong systems thinking — able to design end-to-end ML pipelines that operate reliably at scale with low-latency requirements. • Excellent collaboration skills — comfortable partnering with product managers, engineers, and business stakeholders to drive scientific solutions from concept to production. • A track record of measurable business impact through applied ML research and deployment. Key job responsibilities 1/ Work independently on ambiguous problems: Independently work on capacity forecasting problems that are not well defined or structured, identifying and framing new research challenges associated with broad problem areas, delivering with limited guidance. 2/ Influence across multiple teams: Drive alignment on ML approaches and capacity strategies across product, engineering, and operations teams. Actively mentor and develop others on the team. 3/ Deliver end-to-end production solutions: Develop and deliver complete solutions including scientific contributions that are deployed in production. Make technical trade-offs balancing long-term invention with short-term delivery Lead on medium-to-large business problems: Take the lead on capacity management challenges that deliver significant benefits to customers and the business through improved forecasting accuracy and cost optimization. 4/ Drive team scientific agenda: Shape the direction of ML research for capacity management, proposing new approaches and securing buy-in from leadership. 5/ Set the example: Your solutions, code, designs, and scientific artifacts should set a great example to others.

Do you have proven analytical capabilities to identify business opportunities, develop predictive models and optimization algorithms to help us build state of the art Support organization? At Amazon, we are working to be the most customer-centric company on earth. To get there, we need exceptionally talented, bright, and driven people. We set big goals and are looking for people who can help us reach and exceed them. Amazon Web Services (AWS) is one of the world’s most comprehensive and broadly adopted cloud platform, offering over 200 fully featured services from data centers globally. Amazon Web Services, Inc. provides services for broad range of applications including compute, storage, databases, networking, analytics, machine learning and artificial intelligence (AI), Internet of Things (IoT), security, and application development, deployment, and management. AWS Support's Capacity Planning team is looking for a strong, talented Data Scientist to model contact and volume forecasting, discovering insights and identifying opportunities through the use of statistics, machine learning, and combinatorial optimization problems to drive business and operational improvements. You are passionate about building solutions that will help drive a more efficient operations network and optimize cost. In this role, you will partner with data engineering, tooling team, operations, training, workforce management and finance teams, driving optimization and prediction solutions across the network influencing the long-term strategy of the business. We are looking for an experienced and motivated Data Scientist with proven abilities to build and manage modeling projects, forecasting solutions, identify data requirements, build methodology and tools that are statistically grounded. You are an expert in the areas of data science, forecasting, optimization, machine learning and statistics, and is comfortable facilitating ideation and working from concept through execution. You are customer obsessed, innovative, independent, results-oriented and enjoys working in a fast-paced growing organization. An interest in operations, process improvement is helpful. The ability to embrace this ambiguity and work with a highly distributed team of experts is critical. While this is a small team, there is opportunity to own globally impactful work and grow your career in technical, programmatic or people leadership. You will likely to work in Python or R, building forecasting, predictive and optimization models. Your problem solving ability, knowledge of data models and ability to drive results through ambiguity are more important to us. About the team About Us Diverse Experiences AWS values diverse experiences. Even if you do not meet all of the preferred qualifications and skills listed in the job description, we encourage candidates to apply. If your career is just starting, hasn’t followed a traditional path, or includes alternative experiences, don’t let it stop you from applying. Why AWS? Amazon Web Services (AWS) is the world’s most comprehensive and broadly adopted cloud platform. We pioneered cloud computing and never stopped innovating — that’s why customers from the most successful startups to Global 500 companies trust our robust suite of products and services to power their businesses. Inclusive Team Culture Here at AWS, it’s in our nature to learn and be curious. Our employee-led affinity groups foster a culture of inclusion that empower us to be proud of our differences. Ongoing events and learning experiences, including our Conversations on Race and Ethnicity (CORE) and AmazeCon (gender diversity) conferences, inspire us to never stop embracing our uniqueness. Mentorship & Career Growth We’re continuously raising our performance bar as we strive to become Earth’s Best Employer. That’s why you’ll find endless knowledge-sharing, mentorship and other career-advancing resources here to help you develop into a better-rounded professional. Work/Life Balance We value work-life harmony. Achieving success at work should never come at the expense of sacrifices at home, which is why we strive for flexibility as part of our working culture. When we feel supported in the workplace and at home, there’s nothing we can’t achieve in the cloud. Hybrid Work We value innovation and recognize this sometimes requires uninterrupted time to focus on a build. We also value in-person collaboration and time spent face-to-face. Our team affords employees options to work in the office every day or in a flexible, hybrid work model near one of our US Amazon offices.

Amazon Health Services (One Medical) About Us: At Health AI, we're revolutionizing healthcare delivery through innovative AI-enabled solutions. As part of Amazon Health Services and One Medical, we're on a mission to make quality healthcare more accessible while improving patient outcomes. Our work directly impacts millions of lives by empowering patients and enabling healthcare providers to deliver more meaningful care. Role Overview: We're seeking an Applied Scientist to join our dynamic team in building state of the art AI/ML solutions for healthcare. This role offers a unique opportunity to work at the intersection of artificial intelligence and healthcare, developing solutions that will shape the future of medical services delivery. Key job responsibilities • Lead end-to-end development of AI/ML solutions for Amazon Health organization, including Amazon Pharmacy and One Medical • Research, design, and implement state-of-the-art machine learning models, with a focus on Large Language Models (LLMs) and Visual Language Models (VLMs) • Optimize and fine-tune models for production deployment, including model distillation for improved latency • Drive scientific innovation while maintaining a strong focus on practical business outcomes • Collaborate with cross-functional teams to translate complex technical solutions into tangible customer benefits • Contribute to the broader Amazon Health scientific community and help shape our technical roadmap

Are you interested in shaping the future of Advertising and B2B Sales? We are a growing science and engineering team with an exciting charter and need your passion, innovative thinking, and creativity to help take our products to new heights. Amazon Advertising is one of Amazon's fastest growing and most profitable businesses, responsible for defining and delivering a collection of advertising products that drive discovery and sales. Our products are strategically important to our businesses driving long term growth. We break fresh ground in product and technical innovations every day! Within the Advertising Sales organization, we are building a central AI/ML team and are seeking top science talent to build new, science-backed services to drive success for our customers. Our goal is to transform the way account teams operate by creating actionable insights and recommendations they can share with their advertising accounts, and ingesting Generative AI throughout their end-to-end workflows to improve their work efficiency. As a part of our team, you will bring deep expertise in Generative AI and quantitative modeling (forecasting, recommender systems, reinforcement learning, causal inferencing or generative artificial intelligence) to build and refine models that can be implemented in production. You will contribute to chart new courses with our ad sales support technologies, and you have the communication skills necessary to explain complex technical approaches to a variety of stakeholders and customers. You will be part of a team of fellow scientists and engineers taking on iterative approaches to tackle big, long-term problems. Why you will love this opportunity: Amazon has invested heavily in building a world-class advertising business. This team defines and delivers a collection of advertising products that drive discovery and sales. Our solutions generate billions in revenue and drive long-term growth for Amazon's Retail and Marketplace businesses. We deliver billions of ads impressions, millions of clicks daily, and break fresh ground to create world-class products. We are a highly motivated, collaborative, and fun-loving team with an entrepreneurial spirit with a broad mandate to experiment and innovate. Impact and Career Growth: You will invent new experiences and influence customer-facing shopping experiences; this is your opportunity to work within the fastest growing businesses across all of Amazon! Define a long-term scientific vision for our advertising sales business, driven from our customers' needs, translating that direction into specific plans for scientists, engineers and product teams. This role combines scientific leadership, organizational ability, technical strength, product focus, and business understanding. Key job responsibilities - Conceptualize and lead state-of-the-art research on new Machine Learning and Generative Artificial Intelligence solutions to optimize all aspects of the Ad Sales business - Guide the technical approach for the design and implementation of successful models and algorithms in support of expert cross-functional teams delivering on demanding projects - Conduct deep data analysis to derive insights to the business, and identify gaps and new opportunities - Run regular A/B experiments, gather data, and perform statistical analysis - Work closely with software engineers to deliver end-to-end solutions into production - Improve the scalability, efficiency and automation of large-scale data analytics, model training, deployment and serving About the team Sales AI is a central science and engineering organization within Amazon Advertising Sales that powers selling motions and account team workflows via state-of-the-art of AI/ML services. Sales AI is investing in a range of sales intelligence models, including the development of advertiser insights, recommendations and Generative AI-powered applications throughout account team workflows.

Amazon Quick Suite is an enterprise AI platform that transforms how organizations work with their data and knowledge. Combining generative AI-powered search, deep research capabilities, intelligent agents and automations, and comprehensive business intelligence, Quick Suite serves tens of thousands of users. Our platform processes thousands of queries monthly, helping teams make faster, data-driven decisions while maintaining enterprise-grade security and governance. From natural language interactions with complex datasets to automated workflows and custom AI agents, Quick Suite is redefining workplace productivity at unprecedented scale. We are seeking a Data Scientist II to join our Quick Data team, focusing on evaluation and benchmarking data development for Quick Suite features. Our mission is to engineer high-quality datasets that are essential to the success of Amazon Quick Suite. From human evaluations and Responsible AI safeguards to Retrieval-Augmented Generation and beyond, our work ensures that Generative AI is enterprise-ready, safe, and effective for users at scale. As part of our diverse team—including data scientists, engineers, language engineers, linguists, and program managers—you will collaborate closely with science, engineering, and product teams. We are driven by customer obsession and a commitment to excellence. Key job responsibilities In this role, you will leverage data-centric AI principles to assess the impact of data on model performance and the broader machine learning pipeline. You will apply Generative AI techniques to evaluate how well our data represents human language and conduct experiments to measure downstream interactions. Specific responsibilities include: * Design and develop comprehensive evaluation and benchmarking datasets for Quick Suite AI-powered features * Leverage LLMs for synthetic data corpora generation; data evaluation and quality assessment using LLM-as-a-judge settings * Create ground truth datasets with high-quality question-answer pairs across diverse domains and use cases * Lead human annotation initiatives and model evaluation audits to ensure data quality and relevance * Develop and refine annotation guidelines and quality frameworks for evaluation tasks * Conduct statistical analysis to measure model performance, identify failure patterns, and guide improvement strategies * Collaborate with ML scientists and engineers to translate evaluation insights into actionable product improvements * Build scalable data pipelines and tools to support continuous evaluation and benchmarking efforts * Contribute to Responsible AI initiatives by developing safety and fairness evaluation datasets About the team Why AWS? Amazon Web Services (AWS) is the world’s most comprehensive and broadly adopted cloud platform. We pioneered cloud computing and never stopped innovating — that’s why customers from the most successful startups to Global 500 companies trust our robust suite of products and services to power their businesses. Inclusive Team Culture Here at AWS, it’s in our nature to learn and be curious. Our employee-led affinity groups foster a culture of inclusion that empower us to be proud of our differences. Ongoing events and learning experiences, including our Conversations on Race and Ethnicity (CORE) and AmazeCon conferences, inspire us to never stop embracing our uniqueness. Mentorship & Career Growth We’re continuously raising our performance bar as we strive to become Earth’s Best Employer. That’s why you’ll find endless knowledge-sharing, mentorship and other career-advancing resources here to help you develop into a better-rounded professional. Work/Life Balance We value work-life harmony. Achieving success at work should never come at the expense of sacrifices at home, which is why we strive for flexibility as part of our working culture. When we feel supported in the workplace and at home, there’s nothing we can’t achieve in the cloud. Hybrid Work We value innovation and recognize this sometimes requires uninterrupted time to focus on a build. We also value in-person collaboration and time spent face-to-face. Our team affords employees options to work in the office every day or in a flexible, hybrid work model near one of our U.S. Amazon offices.

The Amazon Web Services (AWS) Center for Quantum Computing in Pasadena, CA, is looking to hire an Applied Scientist on the Device Team, focused on packaging and environmental R&D for quantum devices. You will join a multi-disciplinary team of theoretical and experimental physicists, materials scientists, and hardware and software engineers working at the forefront of quantum computing. You should have deep expertise in the design, modeling, and testing of packaging and off-chip environments for microelectronic or quantum devices, with a strong understanding of how packaging and environmental factors impact qubit performance at cryogenic operating conditions. Candidates with a track record of original scientific contributions in packaging, microwave engineering, or quantum cryogenic hardware will be preferred. We are looking for candidates with strong scientific and engineering principles, resourcefulness and a bias for action, superior problem solving, and excellent communication skills. Working effectively within a team environment is essential. As an applied scientist at CQC, you will be expected to drive packaging and environmental R&D from concept through hardware demonstration and stay abreast of advances in quantum hardware packaging and cryogenic measurement science. Key job responsibilities In this role, you will develop packaging and environmental R&D for superconducting quantum devices. Your responsibilities will span four interconnected areas: Packaging R&D: Design, model, and test packaging solutions for superconducting quantum devices. Build electromagnetic and mechanical models to predict and optimize packaging performance, and characterize packaging at cryogenic temperatures. Environmental Test Standards: Design and develop test standards for characterizing the DC and microwave qubit environment, ensuring rigorous and reproducible assessment of off-chip environmental contributions to qubit decoherence and loss. Measurement Automation: Automate data collection for environmental test standards and develop automated reporting pipelines to enable efficient, scalable characterization across devices and configurations. Environmental Improvement: Collaborate with hardware engineers, PCB designers, and circuit designers to identify and mitigate the most significant sources of environmental noise and integration uncertainty, driving improvements in qubit performance through off-chip environment optimization. You will contribute to multi-year roadmap planning for packaging and environmental capabilities aligned with CQC objectives, and help establish the scientific foundation for this capability area within the Device team. About the team About the team Why AWS? Amazon Web Services (AWS) is the world's most comprehensive and broadly adopted cloud platform. We pioneered cloud computing and never stopped innovating — that's why customers from the most successful startups to Global 500 companies trust our robust suite of products and services to power their businesses. AWS Utility Computing (UC) provides product innovations — from foundational services such as Amazon's Simple Storage Service (S3) and Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud (EC2), to consistently released new product innovations that continue to set AWS's services and features apart in the industry. As a member of the UC organization, you'll support the development and management of Compute, Database, Storage, Internet of Things (IoT), Platform, and Productivity Apps services in AWS. Within AWS UC, Amazon Dedicated Cloud (ADC) roles engage with AWS customers who require specialized security solutions for their cloud services. Inclusive Team Culture Here at AWS, it's in our nature to learn and be curious. Our employee-led affinity groups foster a culture of inclusion that empower us to be proud of our differences. Ongoing events and learning experiences, including our Conversations on Race and Ethnicity (CORE) and AmazeCon (diversity) conferences, inspire us to never stop embracing our uniqueness. Diverse Experiences AWS values diverse experiences. Even if you do not meet all of the qualifications and skills listed in the job description, we encourage candidates to apply. If your career is just starting, hasn't followed a traditional path, or includes alternative experiences, don't let it stop you from applying. Mentorship & Career Growth We're continuously raising our performance bar as we strive to become Earth's Best Employer. That's why you'll find endless knowledge-sharing, mentorship and other career-advancing resources here to help you develop into a better-rounded professional. Work/Life Balance We value work-life harmony. Achieving success at work should never come at the expense of sacrifices at home, which is why we strive for flexibility as part of our working culture. When we feel supported in the workplace and at home, there's nothing we can't achieve in the cloud.

At Amazon, we are committed to being the Earth's most customer-centric company. The European International Technology group (EU INTech) owns the enhancement and delivery of Amazon's engineering to all the varied customers and cultures of the world. We do this through a combination of partnerships with other Amazon technical teams and our own innovative new projects. You will be joining the Tamale team to work on Haul. As part of EU INTech and Haul, Tamale strives to create a discovery-driven shopping experience using challenging machine learning and ranking solutions. You will be exposed to large-scale recommendation systems, multi-objective optimization, and state-of-the-art deep learning architectures, and you'll be part of a key effort to improve our customers' browsing experience by building next-generation ranking models for Amazon Haul's endless scroll experience. We are looking for a passionate, talented, and inventive Scientist with a strong machine learning background to help build industry-leading ranking solutions. We strongly value your hard work and obsession to solve complex problems on behalf of Amazon customers. Key job responsibilities We look for applied scientists who possess a wide variety of skills. As the successful applicant for this role, you will work closely with your business partners to identify opportunities for innovation. You will apply machine learning solutions to optimize multi-objective ranking, improve discovery engagement through contextual signals, and scale ranking systems across multiple marketplaces. You will work with business leaders, scientists, and product managers to translate business and functional requirements into concrete deliverables, including the design, development, testing, and deployment of highly scalable distributed ranking services. You will be part of a team of scientists and engineers working on solving ranking and personalization challenges at scale. You will be able to influence the scientific roadmap of the team, setting the standards for scientific excellence. You will be working with state-of-the-art architectures and real-time feature serving systems. Your work will improve the experience of millions of daily customers using Amazon Haul worldwide. You will have the chance to have great customer impact and continue growing in one of the most innovative companies in the world. You will learn a huge amount - and have a lot of fun - in the process!

Amazon Industrial Robotics is seeking exceptional applied science talent to develop AI and machine learning systems that will enable the next generation of advanced manufacturing capabilities at unprecedented scale. We're building revolutionary software infrastructure that combines cutting-edge AI, large-scale optimization, and advanced manufacturing processes to create adaptive production control systems. As a Senior Applied Scientist, you will develop and improve machine learning systems that enable real-time manufacturing flow decisions. You will leverage state-of-the-art optimization and ML techniques, evaluate them against representative manufacturing scenarios, and adapt them to meet the robustness, reliability, and performance needs of production environments. You will invent new algorithms where gaps exist. You'll collaborate closely with software engineering, manufacturing engineering, robotics simulation, and operations teams, and your outputs will directly power the systems that determine what to build next, where to allocate resources, and how to maximize throughput. The ideal candidate brings deep expertise in optimization and machine learning, with a proven track record of delivering scientifically complex solutions into production. You are hands-on, writing significant portions of critical-path scientific code while driving your team's scientific agenda. If you're passionate about inventing the intelligent manufacturing systems of tomorrow rather than optimizing those of today, this role offers the chance to make a lasting impact on the future of automation. Key job responsibilities - Identify and devise new scientific approaches for constraint identification, dispatch optimization, WIP release control, and predictive flow intelligence when the problem is ill-defined and new methodologies need to be invented - Lead the design, implementation, and successful delivery of scientifically complex solutions for real-time manufacturing flow optimization in production - Design and build ML models and optimization algorithms including constraint prediction, starvation risk forecasting, and dispatch optimization - Write a significant portion of critical-path scientific code with solutions that are inventive, maintainable, scalable, and extensible - Execute rapid, rigorous experimentation with reproducible results, closing the gap between simulation and real manufacturing environments - Build evaluation benchmarks that measure model performance against manufacturing outcomes including constraint utilization and throughput rather than traditional ML metrics alone - Influence your team's science and business strategy through insightful contributions to roadmaps, goals, and priorities - Partner with manufacturing engineering, robotics simulation, and applied intelligence teams to ensure scientific approaches are grounded in operational reality - Drive your team's scientific agenda and role model publishing of research results at peer-reviewed venues when appropriate and not precluded by business considerations - Actively participate in hiring and mentor other scientists, improving their skills and ability to deliver - Write clear narratives and documentation describing scientific solutions and design choices

Do you want to join an innovative team of scientists who use machine learning and statistical techniques to create state-of-the-art solutions for providing better value to Amazon’s customers? Do you want to build and deploy advanced algorithmic systems that help optimize millions of transactions every day? Are you excited by the prospect of analyzing and modeling terabytes of data to solve real world problems? Do you like to own end-to-end business problems/metrics and directly impact the profitability of the company? Do you like to innovate and simplify? If yes, then you may be a great fit to join the Machine Learning and Data Sciences team for India Consumer Businesses. If you have an entrepreneurial spirit, know how to deliver, love to work with data, are deeply technical, highly innovative and long for the opportunity to build solutions to challenging problems that directly impact the company's bottom-line, we want to talk to you. Major responsibilities - Use machine learning and analytical techniques to create scalable solutions for business problems - Analyze and extract relevant information from large amounts of Amazon’s historical business data to help automate and optimize key processes - Design, development, evaluate and deploy innovative and highly scalable models for predictive learning - Research and implement novel machine learning and statistical approaches - Work closely with software engineering teams to drive real-time model implementations and new feature creations - Work closely with business owners and operations staff to optimize various business operations - Establish scalable, efficient, automated processes for large scale data analyses, model development, model validation and model implementation - Mentor other scientists and engineers in the use of ML techniques

About the team The JP Economics and Decision Sciences team is a central science team that applies rigorous economic theory, causal inference methods, and machine learning to solve complex business challenges across the JP marketplace and beyond. We work closely with JP business leaders to drive change at Amazon, focusing on solving long-term, ambiguous problems while providing advisory support for short-term business pain points. Key topics include pricing, product selection, delivery speed, profitability, and customer experience. We tackle these issues by building novel economic and econometric models, machine learning systems, and high-impact experiments which we integrate into business, financial, and system-level decision making. Our work is highly collaborative and we regularly partner with JP-, EU-, and US-based interdisciplinary teams. Role Summary We are seeking an Economist to join our growing team in Japan. In this role, you will apply rigorous economic and econometric methods to guide critical business decisions affecting Amazon's JP marketplace. You will build causal inference models to measure the impact of business initiatives on pricing, product selection, delivery speed, profitability, and customer experience. Working alongside economists, data scientists, and business intelligence engineers, you will tackle challenging problems using state-of-the-art analytical techniques while providing advisory support to business stakeholders. As one of the first economists based outside North America and EU, you will play a pioneering role in expanding Amazon's economist community in Asia and make an outsized impact on our international marketplace operations. Key job responsibilities Design and execute causal inference analyses using econometric techniques to measure the impact of business initiatives on key marketplace metrics Build economic models to optimize pricing strategies, product selection decisions, and delivery speed investments that balance customer experience with business profitability Collaborate with product managers, engineers, and business leaders to translate complex business questions into tractable research problems and deliver actionable insights Design and analyze experiments to test hypotheses and validate causal relationships in observational data Develop scalable analytical frameworks and tools using R, Python, or Stata that can be leveraged across multiple business use cases Present findings and recommendations to technical and non-technical audiences, including senior leadership, through clear written narratives and data visualizations Partner with Machine Learning and BI team members to integrate economic insights into automated decision-making systems